CIC 481

Past Issues
CIC 480
CIC 479
CIC 478
CIC 477
CIC 476
CIC 475
CIC 474
CIC 473
CIC 472
CIC 471
CIC 470
CIC 469
CIC 468
CIC 467
CIC 466
CIC 465
CIC 464
CIC 463
CIC 462
CIC 461
CIC 460
CIC 459
CIC 458
CIC 457
CIC 456
CIC 455
CIC 454
CIC 453
CIC 452
CIC 451
CIC 450
CIC 449
CIC 448
CIC 447
CIC 446
CIC 445
CIC 444
CIC 443
CIC 442
CIC 441
CIC 440
CIC 439
CIC 438
CIC 437
CIC 436
CIC 435
CIC 434
CIC 433
CIC 432
CIC 431
CIC 430
CIC 429
CIC 428
CIC 427
CIC 426
CIC 425
CIC 424
CIC 423
CIC 422
CIC 421
CIC 420
CIC 419
CIC 418
CIC 417
CIC 416
CIC 415
CIC 414
CIC 413
CIC 412
CIC 411
CIC 410
CIC 409
CIC 408
CIC 407
CIC 406
CIC 405
CIC 404
CIC 403
CIC 402
CIC 401
CIC 400
CIC 399
CIC 398
CIC 397
CIC 396
CIC 395
CIC 394
CIC 393
CIC 392
CIC 391
CIC 390
CIC 389
CIC 388
CIC 387
CIC 386
CIC 385
CIC 384
CIC 383
CIC 382
CIC 381
CIC 380
CIC 379
CIC 378
CIC 377
CIC 375
CIC 374
CIC 373
CIC 372
CIC 371
CIC 370
CIC 369
CIC 368
CIC 367
CIC 366
CIC 365
CIC 364
CIC 363
CIC 362
CIC 361
CIC 360
CIC 359
CIC 358
CIC 357
CIC 356
CIC 355
CIC 354
CIC 353
CIC 352
CIC 351
CIC 350
CIC 349
CIC 348
CIC 347
CIC 346
CIC 345
CIC 344
CIC 343
CIC 342
CIC 341
CIC 340
CIC 339
CIC 338
CIC 337
CIC 336
CIC 335
CIC 334
CIC 333
CIC 332
CIC 331
CIC 330
CIC 329
CIC 328
CIC 327
CIC 326
CIC 325
CIC 324
CIC 323
CIC 322
CIC 321
CIC 320
CIC 319
CIC 318
CIC 317
CIC 316
CIC 315
CIC 314
CIC 313
CIC 312
CIC 311
CIC 310
CIC 309
CIC 308
CIC 307
CIC 306
CIC 305
CIC 304
CIC 303
CIC 302
CIC 301
CIC 300
CIC 299
CIC 298
CIC 297
CIC 296
CIC 295
CIC 294
CIC 293
CIC 292
CIC 291
CIC 290
CIC 289
CIC 288
CIC 287
CIC 286
CIC 285
CIC 284
CIC 283
CIC 282
CIC 281
CIC 280
CIC 279
CIC 278
CIC 277
CIC 276
CIC 275
CIC 274
CIC 273
CIC 272
CIC 271
CIC 270
CIC 269
CIC 268
CIC 267
CIC 266
CIC 265
CIC 264
CIC 263
CIC 262
CIC 261
CIC 260
CIC 259
CIC 258
CIC 257
CIC 256
CIC 255
CIC 254
CIC 253
CIC 252
CIC 251
CIC 250
CIC 249
CIC 248
CIC 247
CIC 246
CIC 245
CIC 244
CIC 243
CIC 242
CIC 241
CIC 240
CIC 239
CIC 238
CIC 237
CIC 236
CIC 235
CIC 234
CIC 233
CIC 232
CIC 231
CIC 230
CIC 229
CIC 228
CIC 227
CIC 226
CIC 225
CIC 224
CIC 223
CIC 222
CIC 221
CIC 220
CIC 219
CIC 218
CIC 217
CIC 216
CIC 215
CIC 214
CIC 213
CIC 212
CIC 211
CIC 210
CIC 209
CIC 208
CIC 207
CIC 206
CIC 205
CIC 204
CIC 203
CIC 202
CIC 201
CIC 200
CIC 199
CIC 198
CIC 197
CIC 196
CIC 195
CIC 194
CIC 193
CIC 192
CIC 191
CIC 190
CIC 189
CIC 188
CIC 187
CIC 186
CIC 185
CIC 184
CIC 183
CIC 182
CIC 181
CIC 180
CIC 179
CIC 178
CIC 177
CIC 176
CIC 175
CIC 174
CIC 173
CIC 172
CIC 171
CIC 170
CIC 169
CIC 168
CIC 167
CIC 166
CIC 165
CIC 164
CIC 163
CIC 162
CIC 161
CIC 160
CIC 159
CIC 158
CIC 157
CIC 156
CIC 155
CIC 154
CIC 153
CIC 152
CIC 151
CIC 150
CIC 149
CIC 148
CIC 147
CIC 146
CIC 145
CIC 144
CIC 143
CIC 142
CIC 141
CIC 140
CIC 139
CIC 138
CIC 137
CIC 136
CIC 135
CIC 134
CIC 133
CIC 132
CIC 131
CIC 130
CIC 129
CIC 128
CIC 127
CIC 126
CIC 125
CIC 124
CIC 123
CIC 122
CIC 121
CIC 120
CIC 119
CIC 118
CIC 117
CIC 116
CIC 115
CIC 114
CIC 113
CIC 112
CIC 111
CIC 110
CIC 109
CIC 108
CIC 107
CIC 106
CIC 105
CIC 104
CIC 103
CIC 102
CIC 101
CIC 100
CIC 99
CIC 98
CIC 97
CIC 96
CIC 95
CIC 94
CIC 93
CIC 92
CIC 91
CIC 90
CIC 89
CIC 88
CIC 87
CIC 86
CIC 85
CIC 84
CIC 83
CIC 82
CIC 81
CIC 80
CIC 79
CIC 78
CIC 77
CIC 76
CIC 75
CIC 74
CIC 73
CIC 72
CIC 71
CIC 70
CIC 69
CIC 68
CIC 67
CIC 66
CIC 65
CIC 64
CIC 63
CIC 62
CIC 61
CIC 60
CIC 59
CIC 58
CIC 57
CIC 56
CIC 55
CIC 54
CIC 53
CIC 52
CIC 51
CIC 50
CIC 49
CIC 48
CIC 47
CIC 46
CIC 45
CIC 44
CIC 43
CIC 42
CIC 41
CIC 40
CIC 39
CIC 38
CIC 37
CIC 36
CIC 35
CIC 34
CIC 33
CIC 32
CIC 31
CIC 30
CIC 29
CIC 28
CIC 27
CIC 26
CIC 25
CIC 24
CIC 23
CIC 22
CIC 21
CIC 20
CIC 19
CIC 18
CIC 17
CIC 16
CIC 15
CIC 14
CIC 13
CIC 12
CIC 11
CIC 10
CIC 9
CIC 8
CIC 7
CIC 6
CIC 5
CIC 4
CIC 3
CIC 2
CIC 1

Profile - Caesar's First Conquest

Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) is often though to have been a military novice when he undertook the conquest of Gaul at the age of 42 in 58 BC, a task that would take nearly seven years. Nevertheless, like all Romans of his class he had spent time with the legions, and had served with some distinction.

The Civil War of 83-82 BC began when Caesar was about 17. He was thus eligible to serve as a contubernius, a volunteer personal aide to a senior officer, the most common introduction to military service for a young man of good family. In 87 BC, however, when Caesar was about 13, he had been elected Flamen Dialis, the High Priest of Jupiter, which barred him from military service. A run-in with the Dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla around the beginning of 81 BC cost Caesar this priesthood, albeit not his head.

Leaving Rome, Caesar served as a junior officer under Marcus Minucius Thermus, the Praetor of Asia, in 81‑80 BC during the Second Mithridatic War. Thermus needed ships to control the Aegean, and sent Caesar on a diplomatic mission to Bithynia, to secure a fleet from King Nicomedes IV, at which he was successful (his enemies would later claim he had become the royal catamite – “We know what you got from Nicomedes, and what he got from you.”). During the siege of Mytilene in 80 BC, Caesar won the Corona civica for saving the life of a comrade in battle. After the fall of the city he apparently spent some time on occupation duty and later served with Publius Servilius Vatia during his campaign against the Cilician pirates in 78 BC. As Sulla died that year, Caesar returned to Rome, having spent about three years in the army.

In Rome, Caesar began making a splash as a prosecutor and in politics, and was elected to several minor government posts. In 75 BC, however, Rome having become too hot and his debts too great, Caesar left Italy to study at Rhodes. Captured by pirates in the Aegean Sea, after his ransom had been paid (by his insistence at more than double what they had demanded!), although lacking imperium (command authority), Caesar raised a small fleet at Miletus, captured his former captors in a daring night attack, and crucified them. The following year, Nicomedes IV of Bithynia died, willing his kingdom to the Roman people. Mithridates of Pontus objected, initiating the Third Mithridatic War (73-63 BC). Caesar abandoned his studies at Rhodes to join the army in Asia commanded by his mother’s brother, Marcus Aurelius Cotta. He raised troops at the start of the war, and apparently commanded them in the defense of Caria (the southern coast of Turkey), but when the death of another of his uncles, Gaius Aurelius Cotta, opened a seat in the College of Pontiffs, he promptly returned home to secure election to this minor priesthood and reentered politics.

In 72 BC Caesar was elected military tribune, and served in the war against Spartacus and the rebellious slaves, though we have no information as to his activities. In 70 BC he was elected one of the quaestores, the first formal step on the cursus honorum, or “Course of Honor” which all high-born Romans sought to follow. Assigned to the staff of the governor of Further Spain, Caesar performed administrative, judicial, and financial duties, in what is now Andalucia. Returning to Rome in 67 BC, he continued in politics and law, and in an electoral coup in 63 BC secured the senior-most priesthood, Pontifex Maximus. The following year Caesar was elected praetor, the second highest post in the Roman government, and one with full imperium. When his term ended in 61 BC, he was assigned to govern Further Spain as propraetor.

Already familiar with the province from his tour there as quaestor, Caesar promptly demonstrated that despite his reputation for luxury, idleness, and dissipation he was an excellent administrator. Upon arriving in Further Spain, Caesar dealt with some routine administrative and judicial problems. Then he undertook to settle the problem of plundering raids by the Lusitani, who dwelt in the Herminian Mountains (today’s Serra da Estéla) of what is now eastern Portugal, between the modern rivers Tajo and Duero, territory familiar to those interested in the Peninsular War of 1808-1814.

While raising a new legion to supplement the two veteran ones already in his province, Caesar undertook a diplomatic offensive, ordering the tribes to move out of their mountains into the plains. Naturally the Lusitani refused and prepared for war. During the war Caesar proved remarkably energetic, as seen in this lightly edited passage from the Roman historian Lucius Cassius Dio (c. AD 155-235),

After the Lusitani had taken up arms, Caesar overcame them. Then the Callaeci, their neighbors to the north, fearing that he would march against them too, carried off their children and wives and most valuable possessions out of the way across the Duero. Caesar first occupied their cities, while they were thus engaged, and next joined battle with the men themselves. They put their herds in front of their battle line, with the intention of attacking the Romans when the latter should scatter to seize the cattle; but Caesar, neglecting the animals, attacked the men and conquered them.

Meanwhile Caesar learned that the Lusitani had once more withdrawn into the Herminian Mountains and were intending to ambush him as he returned southwards. So he moved by another route, and then marched against them. Emerging victorious, Caesar pursued them in flight to the ocean. When, however, they abandoned the mainland and crossed over to an island. Caesar had to halt at the water’s edge, as he had no boats. He built some rafts, by means of which he sent on a part of his army to attack the island.

This expedition cost Caesar a number of men. As the rafts approached the enemy coast, their commander ordered the troops ashore, thinking they could cross over the flats on foot. But then he was forced offshore by the return of the tide, leaving them in the lurch. All but one of the landing party died bravely defending themselves; Publius Scaevius was the only one to survive, who, having lost his shield and taken many wounds, leaped into the water escaped by swimming.

Caesar sent for boats from Gades, and crossed over to the island with his whole army, and reduced the people there without a blow, as they were hard pressed for want of food. Then he sailed to Bragança, a city of Callaecia. As his ships approach to land, the people became alarmed, never before having seen a fleet, and were easily subjugated.

With the Lusitani and Callaeci tamed, albeit not annexed, Caesar turned to more peaceful pursuits. He settled some long standing problems between various cities in his province and tried to resolve complaints by debtors against their creditors. Caesar also handed out grants of citizenship to some notable local leaders, and raised at least one city to the status of a Roman municipality, Gades (modern Cadiz), a prosperous old Phoenician settlement that had been under Rome’s aegis for about 150 years. Of course he also rewarded his troops, using the loot from the Lusitanian and Callaecian towns he had taken, and still had enough money left over to help settle some of his prodigious debts and leave some left over for the treasury. Caesar’s administration of his province seems to have found favor among the Celtiberians, for when he campaigned in the Spains against the Pompeians in 49 BC and again in 46-45 BC, the local tribes seem to have looked upon him with favor.

When his term of office was coming to an end, Caesar made such haste to get back to Rome that he did not even wait for his replacement; having been hailed as Imperator by his troops, he wished to get to the capitol to celebrate a triumph and then run for consul.

What followed is told by the historian Plutarch (fl. AD 46-120):

. . . since those who sued for the privilege of a triumph must remain outside Rome, while those who were candidates for the consulship must be present in the city, Caesar was in a great dilemma, because he had reached home at the very time of the consular elections. Caesar sent a request to the senate that he might be permitted to offer himself for the consulship in absentia, through the agency of his friends. Opposing Caesar’s request, M. Porcius Cato insisted that the law be strictly enforced. Moreover, observing that many senators had been won over by Caesar's attentions, Cato blocked a vote on the matter by spending the day in speaking. Caesar decided to give up the triumph and try for the consulship.

Caesar’s decision to forego a triumph was virtually unprecedented in Roman history, the ceremonial parade being among the crowning honors that a citizen could achieve. But then, Caesar was much more focused on the long view than most Roman politicians; years later, during a desperate political crisis the great orator Marcus Tullius Cicero, also seeking a triumph, would make a different decision, arguably with disastrous consequences.

Caesar won the consulship for 59 BC, in part because he had entered into a partnership – the “First Triumvirate” – with the two most powerful men in Rome, Pompey the Great and Crassus. It was a spectacular consulship. Caesar marginalized his co-consul to the extent that folks joked it was “The Consulship of Julius and Caesar,” as he single-handedly instituted many reforms while his colleague withdrew to his residence claiming to be consulting the omens. During his consulship, Caesar secured for himself the command in Gaul that was his ultimate goal, and in 58 BC headed north to begin the conquest of that vast region.

Oddly, Caesar’s contemporaries ignored his military achievements in Lusitania, which gave a foretaste of his extraordinary energy, decisiveness, and speed when on campaign, an oversight that was for many of them fatal. And, of course, most modern biographers and historians have also tended to overlook his military experience as well, and even his successful command of three legions on campaign in Lusitania, given the sparseness of the ancient sources.

Plutarch tells us one other thing about Caesar’s time in Spain: he read extensively, which until only a couple of centuries ago was the main way a gentleman learned tactics, strategy, and statecraft. Among the books he read was a life of Alexander the Great, and upon finishing it Caesar wept. Asked why, he replied “Wouldn’t you, thinking it sad that at my age Alexander was already king of such a great empire, while I have not got anything to my credit?”

FootNote: Caesar’s Legions. There were four legions in the Spanish provinces in 61 BC, and a case has been made that they were designated the 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th (well, actually VI, VII, VIII, and VIIII) two of which were in Caesar’s bailiwick. So when Caesar raised a new one, it would logically have been designated the 10th. Now there’s no question that when he became proconsul of Narbonnensis and Cisalpine Gaul in 58 BC he was given “four veteran legions”, numbered 7th, 8th, 9th, and 10th. So if the hypothesis about the numbering of the legions in Spain is correct, Caesar would have already commanded some of these troops during his Lusitanian campaign. This would certainly help explain the enormous confidence he had in his legions – and they in him – later that year during his initial campaigns in Gaul against the Helvetii and the Germans under Ariovistus.


© 1998 - 2024 StrategyWorld.com. All rights Reserved.
StrategyWorld.com, StrategyPage.com, FYEO, For Your Eyes Only and Al Nofi's CIC are all trademarks of StrategyWorld.com
Privacy Policy